Essay for Toyota’Human Resource Management

List of abbreviation There are some common words which often appear in this report will use the abbreviation to reduce the repeating of words through the report. Toyota Motor CompanyTMC Human resource managementHRM Human Resource HR Total Quality Management TQM Toyota Management Principles TMP Financial Year FY Research and Development R&DThe United States U. S Abstract: Toyota Motor Company is the one of world's leading automotive companies and is a global benchmark for quality and continuous improvement. However, in recent years, they faced a recall crisis unlike any they had seen before. Mr. Akio Toyoda, Toyota's president and grandson of the founder, was called to testify before the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Oversight and Government Reform about the company's response to the recall (Greto et al, 2010).Many researchers analysed Toyota’ problems and pointed out several causes for this situation such as Toyota production system’s problem, quality mana gement, and human resource management and so on. This report will focus on human resource management problems in this case, based on information from media and theories of human resource management such as human resource strategy, employee development and career management, performance development, and compensation and etc ; the report will then give not only a conclusion but also recommendations with regard to Toyota’s situation. I.Introduction: I. Toyota’s overview: Kiichiro Toyoda founded Toyota Motor Corporation in 1937 as a spinoff from his father's company Toyota Industries to create automobiles. Three years earlier, in 1934, while still a department of Toyota Industries. The Type A engine was created in 1936, its first passenger car, the Toyota AA. Toyota Motor Corporation group companies are Toyota (including the Scion brand), Lexus, Daihatsu and Hino Motors, along with several â€Å"non-automotive† companies. The numbers of employees worldwide including consolidated and non-consolidated are 386. 841 in 31 March 2011.The company produced more than 7. 000. 000 vehicles per year both inside and outside Japan from 2009. As of the end of March 2011, Toyota businesses worldwide consist of 50 overseas manufacturing companies in 26 countries and regions. Toyota's vehicles are sold in more than 170 countries and regions (Toyota Annual Report, 2009) Katsuaki Watanabe, President of Toyota, had famous words: We are doing the same thing we always did; we are consistent. There’s no genius in our company. We just do whatever we believe is right, trying every day to improve every little bit and piece.But when 70 years of very small improvements accumulate, they become a revolution There are some business results, production and sales results in consolidated basis market Table 1 : Business results (2009_2011) | FY 2009 (April 2008 to March 2009)| FY 2010 (April 2009 to March 2010)| FY 2011 (April 2010 to March 2011)| Sales*1| 20,529. 5| 18, 950. 9| 18,993. 6| Operating income*1| -461| 147. 5| 468. 2| Net income*1| -436. 9| 209. 4| 408. 1| Capital Expenditures*1*2| 1302. 5| 579. 0| 642. 3| R;D*1| 904. 0| 725. 3| 730. 3| Number of consolidated subsidiaries| 529| 522| 511| No. of Affil.Accounted for Under the Equity Method| 56| 56| 56| (unit = 1 billion yen or 1 company) *1 Monetary figures rounded down to the nearest 100 million yen *2 Figures for depreciation expenses and capital expenditures do not include vehicles in operating lease * Table 2 : Production results | FY 2009 (April 2008 to March 2009)| FY 2010 (April 2009 to March 2010)| FY 2011 (April 2010 to March 2011)| Vehicles| Japan| 4,255,000| 3,956,000| 3,721,000| | Overseas| 2,796,000| 2,853,000| 3,448,000| | Total| 7,051,000| 6,809,000| 7,169,000| * Table 3 : Sales results | FY 2009 (April 2008 to March 2009)| FY 2010 April 2009 to March 2010)| FY 2011 (April 2010 to March 2011)| Vehicles| Japan| 1,945,000| 2,163,000| 1,913,000| | Overseas| 5,622,000| 5,074,00 0| 5,395,000| | Total| 7,567,000| 7,237,000| 7,308,000| Homes| 5,442| 5,281| 5,157| (Source: http://www. toyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) II. Toyota’s problems in recent years: In late 2009, Toyota became the subject of media and U. S. government scrutiny after multiple deaths and injuries were attributed to accidents resulting from the unintended and uncontrolled acceleration of its cars. According to Smith (2012), despite Toyota's voluntary recall of 4. million vehicles for floor mats that could jam the accelerator pedal and a later recall to increase the space between the gas pedal and the floor, the company insisted there was no underlying defect and defended itself against media reports and regulatory statements that said otherwise. As the crisis escalated, Toyota was further criticized for its unwillingness to share information from its data recorders about possible problems with electronic throttle controls and sticky accelerator pedals, as well as braking problems with the production system. Cole said that â€Å"†¦ y the time Toyota Motor Company president Akio Toyoda apologized in his testimony to the U. S. Congress, Toyota's stock price had declined, in just over a month, by 20 percent-a $35 billion loss of market value† (2011, p3) Furthermore, Toyota in Australia revealed that it was halving production at its Altona plant in Melbourne, citing components shortages resulting from Japan’s earthquake and tsunami. The company announced that for the next two months, its 3,000 Australian workers would receive only 75 percent of their wages, operating on half shifts, and that it would review its production schedules in June of 2011 (Marshall, 2011)II. Methodology: The methodology used to make this report is data collection and analysis from two sources including sources of Toyota’s issue from the Internet, Toyota Motor Corporation’s Website, magazines, journal articles and academic materials such as books , lectures and etc. After collecting, those data have analysing about Toyota’s issues. Besides, the data collects the commentary from authors and experts about issues of Toyota and its HRM in order to observe those issues in many sides of views, especially in human resource views.The sources of case study also comes from magazines and news from quality source such as the New York Times, Human Resource Management Magazine, Harvard Business Publishing, Human Capital Online Magazine, and other HR magazines in order to guarantees the quality of the data. Finally, both HR theories and practice were compared in order to give recommendations and conclusions in this issue. III. Analysis about Human Resource Management of Toyota 1. Toyota human resource management views and practice:Toyota is known for many world class products and quality initiatives that include the famous Toyota production system that later became popular as JIT (just-in-time inventory). Toyota maintains a high pro file in its HRM policies and practices too (Smith, 2008). The global vision in human resource management in Toyota Motor Company (TMC) is create working environments for various employees to work proudly and with loyalty and confidence in fulfilling their potential, which realize their self- growth (Akio, 2005).The company focus on relationship with their employees based on basic principles of human resource management including creating a workplace environment where employees can work with their trust in the company; creating a mechanism for promoting constant and voluntary initiatives in continuous improvements; fully committed and thorough human resources development; and promoting teamwork aimed at pursuit of individual roles and optimization of the entire team (Toyota ‘s sustainability report, 1998).According to Ian Winfied, Professor of university of Derby in UK, said that human resource practices of Toyota’s company can serve as a model, particularly in manufactu ring and production oriented organizations. Toyota’s HRM framework broadly comprises of four goals including four goal follow: a) The goal of organizational integration: The integration of employees at individual and collective level with organization is seen as the primary goal of Toyota HRM strategy. This goal has been achieved through extensive use of teams that are subordinate to organizational goals.Welfare of employees also received wide attention as a part of this goal (Toyota global overview, 1998) b) The goal of commitment. In order to achieve this goal, a two-pronged strategy was followed. Firstly, Toyota preferred a semi-rural workforce for induction in their plants. They believe that people who are not contaminated by industrial culture and influences tend to retain with them a kind of feudal value of loyalty, which can be converted into organizational commitment.Secondly, measures such as suggestion schemes, quality circles and employee involvement methods are us ed to gain commitment. (Toyota global overview, 1998) c) The goal of flexibility and adaptability. Team authority in place of single individual holding all the powers has paved the way for realizing flexibility in the organization. These teams are task-based and can be dismantled or restructured, depending upon the situation. The adaptability trait is institutionalized through the approach of multi-skilling and job rotations. Toyota global overview, 1998) d) The goal of quality. Self, peer and teams surveillance techniques are used to ensure quality of products. Further, a series of measures employed, such as time and motion study, benchmarking, continuous process improvement and employee involvement contributed in the achievement of this goal (Toyota global overview, 1998) In addition, Toyota has recomposed the aforementioned four HRM goals into 17 specific practices.These 17 practices are classified into production practices and employment practices. The production practices are: JIT, Kanban, Line stop, Level scheduling, Continuous flow and Processing. The employment practices are: Continuous improvement, Single status facilities, Performance appraisal, Daily team briefings, Temporary contracts, Performance related pay, Company council, Cross training and group decision-making (Toyota annual report, 1998) Moreover, Toyota seeks to develop human resources through the activity of making things.Honorary Advisor Eiji Toyoda said that â€Å"†¦. Because people make our automobiles, nothing gets started until we train and educate our people†. As seen in these words, which were expressed by president of the company, Toyota believes that the development of human resources requires the handing down of values and perspectives. In conjunction with the geographic expansion of business and the growth of business areas, undertaking global actions for the development of human resources has become a priority issue.Toyota is building both tangible (a new learning facility) and intangible (course content) structures relating to team member development that ensures a secure and steady flow of qualified human resources to conduct Toyota's global business in the 21st century (Toyota global overview, 2000) * Fully Committed and Thorough Human Resources Development: Toyota conducts systematic company-wide and divisional training and assignments for training purposes with an emphasis on on-the-job training (OJT) to ensure that associates can fully utilize their abilities.Toyota has defined the required qualifications of â€Å"professional staff†1 for office and engineering positions, and â€Å"T shaped human resources’ who are able to perform day-to-day activities and expand their skills in technical positions. Company-wide training is conducted based on employee qualifications, as well as specialized training for individual divisions, language training, and special knowledge and skill training (Toyota’s sustainability Report, 2005)The basis for human resource development is putting the Toyota Way into practice. Toyota is working to develop human resources by seizing times of adversity as opportunities to learn, planning greater enhancement and reinforcement of educational programs based on the five Toyota Way keywords, and on-the-job training (OJT) essential to the progress and succession of building excellent products. (Source: http://www. toyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) Toyota Management Principles (TMP): Continuous Improvement * Challenge: The company form a long-term vision, meeting challenges with courage and creativity to realize our dreams * Kaizen: â€Å"Continuous Improvement†: They improve their business operations continuously, always driving for innovation and evolution. * Genchi Genbutsu: â€Å"Go and see for yourself† They go to the source to find the facts to make correct decisions, build consensus, and achieve their goals. * The Toyota Production System (TPS): + Jidoka: quality at the source + Kaizen: continuous improvement Heijunka: even flow + Kanban: pull system + Just-in-Time: minimal inventories + Work teams + Total Quality Management + Supplier Partnerships * Total Quality Management (TQM): Implementation of TQM has been promoted based on the philosophies of â€Å"Customer First,† â€Å"Continuous Kaizen† and â€Å"Total Participation. † In order to raise the awareness of TQM, several measures are taken to promote resolution, provide every employee working in Toyota's global organization with ideas for action to improve product and service quality, motivate people and revitalize the corporate structure. Source: http://www. toyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) * Employees Training Procedure: The purpose of training is to make sure that employees have the right skills and capabilities to identify and handle all situations they may encounter. Toyota is famous for its four-step cycle — plan/do/check /act. Company-Wide Training to Key principles of the Toyota Way support Professional Staff (Source: http://www. toyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) Outline of Training Programs (Source: http://www. oyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) * Rewards and recognition The purpose of any corporate reward process is to encourage and promote the right behaviours and to discourage the negative ones. It’s important for the reward process to involve the gathering of information about problems. It’s equally important to reward employees who are successful in getting executives to take immediate action on negative information (Toyota annual report, 2000) ( Source: http://www. toyota-global. com/company/profile/overview/) 2.Toyota’s human resource management problems: In the late of 2009, by the first of a series of highly publicized recalls of Toyota vehicles in the United States, Cole (2011) cited Toyota announced that it was recalling 3. 8 million U. S. vehi cles as potential problem in which poorly placed or incorrect floor mats under the driver's seat could lead to uncontrolled acceleration in a range of models. For manufacturing executives who have strived for decades to emulate Toyota, the mere suggestion that it had not only quality issues but also was a serious matter.Furthermore, Toyota said that it will close its New United Motor Manufacturing Incorporated (NUMMI) plant in Fremont, California. NUMMI, opened in 1984 as a joint venture by Toyota and General Motors, currently employs about 5,400 workers all over the world (Kearney, 2009). Similarly, Byrne and O’Connor (2011) showed that Toyota Australia has threatened to end its manufacturing of cars in Australia, after workers went on strike against the company’s wage-cutting drive.Strikes were held on September 2, and September 15 and 16 in 2011, involving more than 3,000 workers at Toyota’s main plant at Altona, in Melbourne’s west, and hundreds more workers at its parts centres in Melbourne and Sydney. The Altona plant produces around 560 cars per day, with 70 percent of them exported, mainly to the Middle East. Toyota is demanding that workers accept a new enterprise agreement that entrenches real wage cuts over the next three years, with nominal wage increases of 1-2 percent now, 2. percent in April 2012, 3 percent in 2013 and 3. 5 percent in 2014. The official annual cost of living is currently 4. 5 percent (Petter, 2011) Moreover, Business Week  Magazine pointed out that employee errors were the root cause of Toyota issues and estimated that Toyota is losing $155 million per week as a result of their recent recall. Toyota had lost nearly $30 billion in stock valuation. The long-term impacts of the root causes that led to Toyota’s current situation could cost the company hundreds of billions of dollars.In addition, poor handling of the issue in the public eye has damaged the automaker’s brand reputation and c aused sales to decline to their lowest point in more than a decade (Hunter, 2010) Furthermore, According to Dr John Sullivan, who is a well-known thought leader in human resource a and professor of management at San Francisco State University, with case study â€Å"How Human resource caused Toyota crash† said that Toyota’s current predicament is a result of poorly designed practices and weak execution on the part of the human resource department (2010).This opinion was supported and confirmed by Hunter (2010) â€Å"†¦Toyota’s current predicament is a result of poorly designed practices and weak execution on the part of the human resource department†. IV. Discussions Although, Toyota is famous with the production system but when they apply this system in global, it is not mean that this system can work effectively in the same way (Sullivan, 2010).For instance, Toyota concentrates exclusively on the hard administration of a production system that produ ced vehicles to the customer’s order in Japan instead of the Western method of producing as many cars as possible as fast as possible, then trying to sell those cars to the customer (Smith et al, 2011).For instance, in response to the growth, Toyota had to delegate more design work to outside contract engineers with more than 1000 new engineers around the globe and take one new suppliers because the internal engineering resources and existing suppliers base could not keep up with the demands (Cole, 2011) It is obviously that the most important in Toyota problems is that the Toyota philosophy is so radical and requires such a change of management strategy that the change in the production process itself overshadows some even more fundamental differences between the drivers of performance in the Orient and in the West.For this reason when Toyota went into production in the West the emphasis was on the detail of the process, not on the people who carried out that process. Accord ing to Bob Nelson, the author of â€Å"Keeping Up In A Down Economy† told that: The average number of suggestions given by an American worker to improve the performance of Toyota company is 1. 1 per year. The same figure for a Japanese worker is 167 suggestions per year.This seems to indicate that there is a significant difference between the way that the Japanese worker feels about what he does and the way that the North American workers feel about what they do. In addition, when the new Toyota plants in the West or other countries were built they slavishly tried to copy the detail of the Toyota production system without understanding the difference between the ways that the workers in the East, compared to the West, felt about what they did.Today that difference is called engagement (Hunter, 2010). Employers in the West are becoming aware of the huge value that is realised when a workforce is engaged but, other than running surveys to find out how engaged, or not, their wor kforce is, very few understand that it is possible to create engagement in an otherwise unengaged workforce, and fewer know how to do it.The cars that Toyota recalled were all built in the West. Is it possible that the faults that caused the recalls did not occur in vehicles produced in the East because they were spotted and rectified by an â€Å"engaged† workforce, while in the West the â€Å"disengaged† workforce knew of the problems but never reported them to Toyota because Western managers do not know how to engage their workforces (Cole, 2011).According Sullivan (2010), in any situation where employees fail to perform as expected, investigators must determine if the human error could have been caused by factors beyond the employee’s control. Such external factors might include actions by senior management, lack of adequate information or job training, faulty inputs to the process, or rewards those intent actions not in line with documented goals.Therefore, if managers believe in accountability, they have to accept that human errors that lead to corporate catastrophes could be the result of faulty HR processes, most notably those related to acquiring, developing, motivating, and managing labour (Hunter, 2010) Furthermore, the mechanical failures were known to Toyota leaders long before corrective action was taken, and many close to the issue are indicating that the company took decisive action to hide the facts and distort the scope of the problem (Greto et el, 2010). When the organization disproportionately rewarded managers for ost-containment versus sustaining product quality, it created the incentive for everyone involved to ignore the facts and to deny that a problem existed. Employees who are well-trained and subject to balanced rewards and performance monitoring systems would not have allowed the situation to grow as it did. If the root cause of the problems Toyota is facing are failure by employees to make good decisions, confr ont negative news, and make a convincing business case for immediate action, then the HR processes that may have influenced those decisions must be examined.The HR processes that must at least be considered as suspect include rewards processes, training processes, performance management processes, and the hiring process (Sullivan, 2011) V. Recommendations: Toyota traditionally has ranked best in its relationship compared with other automakers. However, its ranking has fallen steadily from 2007 through 2010. The roof of Toyota’s recent quality problems, any thorough analysis would also need to acknowledge the role of the company’s centralized management structure (Cole, 2011).From previous parts of this report, there are some recommendations for this issue. The first recommendation is that Toyota should focus on training employees system because the purpose of training is to make sure that employees have the right skills and capabilities to identify and handle all situa tions they may encounter. Toyota is famous for its four-step cycle — plan/do/check/act, but with Toyota plants clearly the training among managers now needs to focus more on new engineers and general staffs.In addition, in an environment where safety is paramount, everyone should have been trained on the symptoms of â€Å"groupthink† and how to avoid the excess discounting or ignoring of negative external safety information (Cole, 2011). The Toyota managers should encourage employees to detect errors and propose solutions. The second recommendation is recruiting process. According to Kramar et al (2011), the purpose of great hiring is to bring on board top-performing individuals with the high level of skills and capabilities that are required to handle the most complex problems.Poorly designed recruiting and  assessment  elements can result in the hiring of individuals who sweep problems under the rug and who are not willing to stand up to management. Therefore, To yota should do not for the purpose of rapid development that ignores the evaluation stage of the recruitment processes otherwise Toyota should maintain the hiring procedures which ensure quality for human resource management.The company can adopt external or internal recruitment in order to looking for high quality employees (Robin et al, 2011) Another recommendation is performance management process. According to Sullivan (2010), the purpose of a performance management process is to periodically monitor or appraise performance, in order to identify problem behaviours before they get out of hand. Hence, The Toyota should check and ensure that the performance measurement system included performance factors to measure responsiveness to negative information.Furthermore, the Toyota’s Human Resource Department also need check or audit the performance appraisal , Performance planning and evaluation (PPE) systems, performance feedback, and performance monitoring process effectively in order to help employees identify, report and alerts errors to warn senior managers before minor problems got out of control (Krmar et al , 2011, p 475). For example, the company should base on performance appraisal to make administrative decisions such as salary administration (pay rises or bonuses), promotion, retention and termination, retrenchment and recognition of an individual's performance.Finally yet importantly, the recommendation is psychological contract. According to Rousseau (1989), the psychological contract is defined as an individual's beliefs about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and another party. In other word, a psychological contract emerges when one party believes that a promise of future return has been made, a contribution has been given and thus, an obligation has been created to provide future benefits.Many researchers illustrated that psychological contract has a huge impact to the performance of employees . As the results, Toyota should consider and ensure the conditions of wages, bonuses, compensation, and welfare as well as avoid violating the psychological contract with employees to create healthy environment workplace. Thus, the company can motivate their staffs make contributions to the success of the company. VI. Conclusion: Human resource management refer to the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees’ behaviour, attitudes and performance.Krmar et al, 2011 said that Human resource impacting the bottom line and customer’s satisfaction, diversity management, and the health and well- being of employees. Therefore, human resource managements is not only about the achievement organization’s goals but also employees health and well –being. It is important for any budding manager to remember that a happy employee is often a productive employee. Furthermore, according to Sullivan (2010), Toyota’s problems are not the result of a sin gle individual making an isolated mistake, but rather due to a companywide series of mistakes that are all related to each other.So many corporate functions were involved, including human resource management, customer service, government relations, vendor management and public relationship, that one cannot help but attribute the crash of Toyota to systemic management failure. As discussed above, employee errors in recruitment, selection, performance management, compensation and benefits, international human resource management and so on were the root cause of several mechanical and financial failures in Toyota automobiles (Cole, 2011).Therefore, to restore credibility, quality and brand, Toyota should not only focus on overcoming the technical problems but also need to review, correct remedy all the processes related to the creation of products that the most important factors is human resources management. To sum up, the key lesson is that others should learn from Toyota’s mi stakes is that HRM system needs to periodically test or audit each of the processes with considering all factors and fix problems as soon as possible otherwise it could allow this type of billion-dollar error to occur.References lists: 1/ The sources of Toyota issues: Byrne, P & O’Connor, P 2011, Toyota Australia executives threaten shutdown after strike, Word Socialist Web Site, http://www. wsws. org/articles/2011/sep2011/toyo-s20. shtml. Cole, R E, 2011, What really happend to Toyota, 01 June, http://hbr. org/product/what-really-happened-to-toyota/an/SMR395-PDF-ENG. Hunter, P 2010, Root cause of Toyota failure: Emplyee Engagement, Human

Archetype Research Project Essay

Archetypes are â€Å"An inherited idea or mode of thought in the psychology of C. G. Jung that is derived from the experience of the race and is present in the unconscious of the individual† (archetype). Archetypes are central in all cultures across the world and can provide important lessons and outlooks on the common aspects of human life. The journey, is an archetype in which the main character is in search of some sort of truth and typically faces many difficult trials along the way, this can be both physical and mental. While going through these trials a kind of hell is reached and the character must attempt to make their way back to society. Though the journey is not always well liked due to its dark and serious nature, it provides self-confidence and shows society how to react to difficulties they may face in life. This archetype can be found in slightly different forms in the three novels: â€Å"Jane Eyre† by Charlotte Brontà «, â€Å"The Odyssey† by Hom er, and â€Å"The Plague† by Albert Camus. Each author uses the archetype, the journey, to express their own thoughts; they create an overall theme or message to influence their readers. â€Å"Jane Eyre† was written in 1847 by Charlotte Brontà «. The novel follows Jane Eyre from her childhood as the family scapegoat, through her schooling at a poorly managed charity school, and later when she becomes a governess and falls in love with her employer, Mr. Rochester. Jane’s journey is in search of the love and acceptance of others, she goes through many trials before reaching her goal. The theme that Brontà « creates using the archetype of the journey is: In times of hardship you must persevere and not lose sight of yourself and your morals while striving to find happiness. This is one of the most important messages that she is sending to her readers through Jane Eyre. She does this by giving multiple examples of Jane’s strength. One example of Jane’s strength is when she struggles to regain her since of dignity and self-worth after discovering, on her wedding day, that Mr. Rochester was already married. This is the most devastating part of Jane’s journey but her reaction to the situation is what builds the theme. â€Å"Laws and principles are not for the times when there is no temptation: they are for such moments as this, when body and soul rise in mutiny against their rigour; stringent are they; inviolate they shall be† (Brontà « 369). Jane is very tempted to just give in to her weaknesses but she regains her composure and continues her struggle. Jane’s strength is also shown when she leaves Thornfield the night after the wedding. â€Å"But I was soon up; crawling forwards on my hands and knees, and then again raised to my feet — ­ as eager and as determined as ever to reach the road† (Brontà « 374). At this point Jane’s emotional turmoil has gone as far as to cause physical weakness. Which, she also finds courage to overcome. Brontà « uses Jane’s strength of morals and self-respect in times of trial to get her theme across to her readers. The importance of her perseverance throughout the novel is solidified in the fact that her suffering pays off in the end with a happy conclusion after Mr. Rochester’s wife is dead. â€Å"I hold myself supremely blest–blest beyond what language can express; because I am my husband’s life as fully is he is mine† (Brontà « 522). Jane would have been very unhappy if she had given in to her weaknesses before she felt morally sound in doing so. This shows how significant her waiting was in securing her happiness in the end. Charlotte Brontà « used the archetype of the journey in Jane Eyre to impact the reader by illustrating the importance of maintaining your moral standards and since of self-worth through times of trial and hardship when you are most prone to weakness. She has exemplified this through the strength and persistence of her main character, Jane. â€Å"The Odyssey† was written by Homer around 700 B.C. It is an epic that tells the story of Odysseus, a man who must make his way back home from war to his wife and son. His journey home however is delayed by a series of trials and while he is away suitors take over his household. Odysseus has been a role model not only in Greek culture but all around the world. Homer uses the characters reactions to the trials that are typical to the archetype of the journey to show the need for determination, hope and strength in the face of hardship. As Odysseus goes through the many challenges of his journey his perseverance is put to the test. One of these occasions is when Odysseus and his crew are within sight of Ithaca, but the curiosity of his crew causes them to be thrown severely off course and pushed back many days in their journey. â€Å"And I woke up with a start, my spirit churning— should I leap over the side and drown at once or grit my teeth and bear it, stay among the living? I bore it all, held firm, hiding my face, clinging tight to the decks† (Homer 10. 55-58). True strength is shown by Odysseus here due to the fact that it is laden with the dramatic irony of almost reaching your goal then being set back to the beginning. Homer uses Odysseus’s will to continue on and not give up to show the determination needed to overcome a trial such as this. Odysseus is not the only character in â€Å"The Odyssey† that the archetype of the journey applies to. Telemachus, Odysseus’s son, also goes through a journey and discovers darker truths as he searches for news of his father and watches the suitors tear apart his house. â€Å"But for me the gods have spun out no such joy, for my father or myself. I must bear up, that’s all† (Homer 3.236-238). Homer presents Telemachus much like his father, always determined to keep moving forward even when it seems all is against him. The archetype of the journey is constantly full of challenges and often disappointment. Odysseus comments on what he has learned of the nature of life and hardship. â€Å"But then, when the happy gods bring on the long hard times, bear them he must, against his will, and steel his heart. Our lives, our mood and mind as we pass across the earth, turn as the days turn† (Homer 18. 154-157). Odysseus has learned this lesson from experience and his calm warnings and advice on the subject contribute to the theme of the necessity of strength when it comes to the archetype of the journey. In relation to the archetype the journey Homer uses â€Å"The Odyssey† to create a theme of resilience and determination when encountering struggles and trials. This is created through the way that the characters handle hardship with their lives. Odysseus is a major role model whose success and failures can easily be learned from. â€Å"The Plague† was written by Albert Camus in 1947; the novel relates the story of a city falling into and later recovering from an epidemic of plague. Each character has his own personal interests but as the plague progresses and the gates of the city are closed, fighting the plague becomes everyone’s main interest. The entire town goes through an archetypal journey with each characters experiences differing in their own ways. When a group of people is suffering, each person has a duty to think more of the group and less of individual desires; everyone has to try to help others. It is the few people who fulfill that duty who make the difference for the whole of the community in the end. As the first few cases began to arise, nobody wanted to admit the high level of danger that came with them. Due to the town’s lack of experience with the plague things move slowly at first and no one really knows what to do. Despite this confusion and lack of knowledge it is important that there are a few people who are always fighting to make progress. â€Å"No, we should go forward, groping our way through the darkness, stumbling perhaps at times, and try to do what good lay in our power† (Camus 205). Camus shows the absolute need for action even when nobody is quite sure what to do. The town is urged to forget personal matters to devote themselves to following blind determination. After months of plague it becomes obvious to the townsfolk that they are all in the situation together and that they are in the same amount of risk even though nobody wanted to acknowledge it out loud. â€Å"No longer were there individual destinies; only a collective destiny, made of plague and emotions shared by all† (Camus 151). The atmosphere of the survival situation has made personal interests unimportant and the survival and health of the community the main point of the people’s lives. As the city of Oran attempts to regain its stability its citizens sacrifice their personal feelings such as love to go into a survival mode. â€Å"Evening after evening gave its truest, mournfulest expression to the blind endurance that had outlasted love from all our hearts† (Camus 168). People have become so engrossed in the plague and its effect on their lives that emotions like love are pushed to the back of the mind. Camus stresses the fact that in order for a community to endure, personal sacrifice is necessary. â€Å"The Plagues† main theme in relation to the archetype of the journey is that personal sacrifice may be needed in order for a community to go through a journey and still prevail in the end. It can also be seen that hope is necessary when you are faced with hardship even if you are completely lost and in the dark. All three novels, â€Å"Jane Eyre† by Charlotte Brontà «, â€Å"The Odyssey† by Homer, and â€Å"The Plague† by Albert Camus have strong examples of the journey archetype. Each tells a story of trials, hardship, and suffering. â€Å"Jane Eyre† focuses largely on Jane’s personal development and the challenges that she faces in her everyday life. Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s main theme is to not lose sight of who you are when things get tough in contrast to the ideas behind â€Å"The Plague† which call for almost an exact opposite due to the community setting in which the journey takes place. â€Å"The Odyssey† is more about a since of strength and endurance, though Odysseus’s emotions are evident and are very important in maintaining his will to continue trying to reach home, they do not dominate the scene like in â€Å"Jane Eyre† and â€Å"The plague†. The journey archetype is very important in giving people insight to possible life situations. By reading about a characters development while going through a journey it is easy to realize their achievements and failures. This makes these types of situations easier to handle when they come up in real life later on because the reader has already been warned of what to do and what not to do. The main characters of a story focused on an archetypal journey are also inspirational and can provide the same hope and determination by giving people a â€Å"they did this so I can too† type of attitude toward life’s challenges.

Taxi driver Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Taxi driver - Essay Example t probably not for me because he has psychological problems such as; unable to sleep some nights, swallowing some pills, he wants to drive a car at nights and nowhere in the movie that shows the Vietnam part or any proof other than his Jacket. He thus has just one jacket, which is not enough proof for me because he was also lying to his family, by sending letters without his addresses as well as the fact that he cannot say anything about his job; events that were enough for me to realize his lies as well as psychological problems, such that when I analyse him from this side I cannot be hundred percent sure Travis was a veteran. Throughout the movie Travis felt alone; trying to find an exit. In addition he was in love with Betsy and frequently went to talk with her in her office. Betsy accepted his invitation since Travis did well on his first talk but on the second night he brought her a pornographic movie, however after that night he never saw her again despite him calling her sever al times and sending flowers to her house, Betsy never came back since she understood they have different lives. Cybil Lynne Shepherd as Betsy though played for less time; played a role which was a changing point in the movie. Her powerful eye contacts with Travis showed that she is an independent and courageous volunteer. The way that Travis approached Betsy was very well portrayed in the movie. Travis as a casual taxi driver is not so much interested in the politics of the country. But the way people were changing made him to become violent and rise against the social problems. The director has clearly shown that the only way Travis used to kill his lonely and desperate hours was by watching pornography since he was suffering from chronic insomnia. This shows the exact social status standing at that period of time in America. Also the adulterous behavior of family members added more coal to the fire and these incidents coupled together to make him think about the bad ideas other than

Physical Security Clients Assessment (Criminal Justice) Essay

Physical Security Clients Assessment (Criminal Justice) - Essay Example insecurity present most intense effects of floods, earthquakes and volcanoes among others just as those that are man-made including civil disturbances, industrial accidents and sabotage. Security forces and those installing security devices therefore need to be armed with adequate skills through vulnerability tests, training and supervision. With the increase in buildings, security and safety become paramount. There are varied risks associated with buildings including disorder, emergencies and crime. The crimes that could be committed in contravention to building security include theft and burglary, property damage including sabotage and graffiti, personal offenses such as elevator assaults, public order offences such as angry interchanges with receptionists and unauthorized access to utilities that could lead to commercial espionage. Disorders encompass behavioral issues such as drug dealing and hostage taking in buildings (Challinger, 2008). Fennelly acknowledges the importance of â€Å"territorial defense strategies† as a way to prevent property related crimes including household larceny, auto theft and break-ins (2004, p.5). The related strategy areas in this case include construction standards, building interior security, building perimeter security and building grounds security. Grounds security would protect against unauthorized entry into sites and inhibits destructive behavior by visitors. Construction standards ensure that the materials and techniques used in construction minimize safety hazards and crimes. Interior security provides a third line of defense by use of physical barriers and surveillance to prevent unauthorized access and ensure security of occupants. Reese and Tong (2010) point out the physical security of federal buildings and include assets of physical security such as closed-circuit television cameras, safety guards and barrier material. Since the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, there have been

Personnel procedures and the constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personnel procedures and the constitution - Essay Example Whereas before an entire crop of new positions had come upon each time that a new executive took the helm, such a provision ensured that it would be against the law for such an action to continue to take place. However, like many political actions, there were equal and opposite reactions. One of the largest negative reactions that the Pendleton Act evoked was the reliance of government on funds from the private sector and/or businesses. Due to the fact that hopeful executives could not longer rely on donations from hopeful applicants to guaranteed positions, this meant that the government put itself at the mercy of the business sector as a means of accruing revenue. Article Seven of the United States constitution specified how many states were required to ratify the US Constitution in order for it become law. As such, Article VII denotes that 9 of the 13 original colonies would need to ratify the Constitution prior to it becoming the founding charter and law of the newly formed United States. The first ten amendments to the US Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights provides a rigid set of limitations on governmental power with regards to what the founders saw as the natural rights of the citizen. Though these Bill of Rights had little bearing on the way in which the individual states sought to exert their own power, the Fourteenth Amendment made it possible for these rights to be transferred explicitly to the state level. These first ten amendments were originally proposed and written by James Madison in 1789 and were ultimately ratified by 1791 for inclusion in the US Constitution. Although Madison himself proposed that there be 12 amendments, only 10 were ultimately passed and ratified by the states as law. These rights have become fundamental to an interpretation and understanding of what US

Changing Roles of Women over Time Research Paper - 1

Changing Roles of Women over Time - Research Paper Example The overall impact of the research will be recollected in the conclusion. Works cited page would be added to a last page of the document. Women in present times are free and happy as compared to the women in last century or before. Over the centuries, women have been thought of a lesser creature, always under subjugation by males in the form of father, brother, husband or boyfriend. After living for centuries under the domination of men, women even tend to forget they were free. This situation started changing over last century especially in Europe and America where women started achieving more freedom. In the nineteenth century and before, women had a very less breathing space and rights. Many families and especially women were raised to behave in a certain way. It was almost a law and the way of being. Women were not given freedom since the beginning of time mainly on the pretext of being physically weak. Women were able to attend schools not very far back in time. Along the year's women rights have grown from very few to too many by now. The women had been suppressed based on self-defense, economic well being, empl oyment, sex, harassment, family, abortion and many more reasons. The movement for women’s rights arose in the early 19th century as an offshoot of abolitionism, the anti-slavery movement that declared each human being to be a self-owner. As with other abolitionists, the early feminists were individualists who drew inspiration from the Declaration of Independence and its principles of individual rights and responsibility. â€Å"The first women’s Rights convention was held in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York. Elizabeth Cady Stanton gave a speech about the Declaration of Sentiments. During this speech, she declared that men and women are created equal. This is truly considered the beginning of the women’s movement† (Women and freedom).

Zara's Supply Chain Methods Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Zara's Supply Chain Methods - Case Study Example The USP can be identified using the business model of Zara and by understanding its competitive edge over other players in the market. The case also aims at developing a strategic analysis of the market conditions, communication, branding and the competition faced by Zara. Zara does not advertise as much as its competitors. Its average advertising spend is 0.3% while 3-4% is the standard industry spend. This gives them a strategic cost advantage against their competitors. This also makes their expansion strategies more economical. The main alternative to advertising used by Zara is its store layouts and displays. Zara has a team of around 200 people exclusively working on acquiring global prime real-estate locations. They are also responsible for frequent refurbishing of the stores and creative window displaying. There is a testing facility in their headquarters where different layouts are tested and the best is selected for various stores at different locations. The peculiar business model of Zara helps them in reducing their advertising store by giving them alternative options to attract customers. This is by influencing the buying behaviors of customers. Zara updates its collection twice every week. So a usual customer of Zara knows that new styles will be awaiting them every week, making them want to pay another visit very soon. Also, if a customer does not find anything interesting to buy, he knows that he will get more choices in the coming week. New styles in Zara are added very frequently, but are not replenished. This creates a scarcity and the customers of Zara pay frequent visits to the stores so that they don't miss out on certain styles. Zara, because of its unique branding has got itself a cult image through the years. Each Zara store is redesigned every 5 years to keep up with the current fashion. Zara targets a broad range of customers and do not define their target market by age and lifestyle like traditional retailers. They target people of all age group who are educated and are sensitive to fashion and react to changes in fashion. As fashion is more globalized in recent times, Zara offers standardized fashion wear. Also, their pricing strategy is different. Outside of Spain, and particularly in the UK, it is based on more premium prices. Partly to compensate for higher distribution and rental costs, prices can be up to 40 per cent higher. Zara's positioning as an aspiration brand in the UK has the added benefit of giving the perception of clear water between itself and mass-market fast-fashion rivals such as New Look or H&M. STRATEGIC ANALYSIS USING ANSOFF'S MATRIX Market Penetration Strategy Through its unique business model, Zara encourages its existing customers to buy more. Every new style reaches the store shelves from design table in about two weeks. This fast-fashion methodology helps in remaining updated to the latest trends and makes the customers visit the stores more often. This quick inventory turnover is due to its vertically integrated supply chain and its total control over its system. Market Development Strategy Zara identifies potential segments in the market as a first step in their market development. By giving equal importance to all such segments, Zara

Assignment 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 26

1 - Assignment Example There has to be accurate harmonization between jobs as well as vertical smooth communication amongst job levels in order to obtain inter-functional coordination. The meaning of this is that the management of an organization must be used to gaps of employment such as shortages, surplus, or even deficiencies in between levels of jobs as well as job categories. (Zeiger, 2014) For this to be achieved there is the requirement for knowledge of, as well as control over the workforce elements as well as their individual connections. If decisions are to be made in the absence of such inter- connections linked between job levels as well as job categories, the outcome will be a labor force which is disgustingly out of balance in terms of moreover a qualitative sense or a quantitative sense. The decisions that are made for the adjustment of gaps of employment are dependent on, together the external sources of employment as well as the internal sources of employment. For instance, if decisions are poorly conceived, the outcome could be the impossibility of promoting from within caused by understaffing. Another reason for this could be absence of employee training at certain job levels or in certain job categories (Zeiger, 2014). The lack of ability to promote from the inside is a clear implication of additional expenditure for the firm caused by requirement of external recruitment as well as the lack of progression for the employees in the organization. Decisions on job categories and levels are critical to the conduct as well as results of the HRP since they are a way to achieve the goals o the organization. Their absence is likely to lead to a workforce that is imbalanced. In addition, they help cut costs of the organization through internal recruitment and create employee

Shri Ram Restaurant - Operations Management Essay

Shri Ram Restaurant - Operations Management - Essay Example Sometimes the customers have been quoted saying that, the services are slow and the rooms squeezed and that people should only go there when they are not in a hurry or are craving for South Indian foods. They have continuously complained that the decor is tacky and the lighting very poor (tripadvisor, 2013). Although the restaurant is well furnished and well equipped with Colourful painted walls, such comments from customers should be seriously treated taking into account that ‘the customer is always right’. Such problems have been causing slow growth of the business due to low customer turnover. To deal with these challenges, Shri Ram Restaurant needs to identify the areas with discrepancies and come up with proper solutions. The main issues that need to be handled are; inventory and capacity management, supply chain management, risk management, lean and waste management, demand forecasting and queuing calculations, quality models, and global and international issues. I n order to complete the customer’s requirements, the restaurant should manage the inventory effectively. Managing finances by use of database is very crucial for effective and accurate use of funds. Quality management remains the key point that forms basis for the business’s main stay and a pacesetter for steadfast growth and expansion.According to Laird and McCutcheon (2002), risk management is the integrated loom to the management of the constant reduction of risks to environment assets, production and people in the industrial setting... Purpose of Case Study The purpose of the study is to better the services of the restaurant through improvement of customers and staff management and production processes. Sometimes the customers have been quoted saying that, the services are slow and the rooms squeezed and that people should only go there when they are not in a hurry or are craving for South Indian foods. They have continuously complained that the decor is tacky and the lighting very poor (tripadvisor, 2013). Although the restaurant is well furnished and well equipped with Colourful painted walls, such comments from customers should be seriously treated taking into account that ‘the customer is always right’. Such problems have been causing slow growth of the business due to low customer turnover. To deal with these challenges, Shri Ram Restaurant needs to identify the areas with discrepancies and come up with proper solutions. The main issues that need to be handled are; inventory and capacity managemen t, supply chain management, risk management, lean and waste management, demand forecasting and queuing calculations, quality models, and global and international issues. In order to complete the customer’s requirements, the restaurant should manage the inventory effectively. Managing finances by use of database is very crucial for effective and accurate use of funds. Quality management remains the key point that forms basis for the business’s main stay and a pacesetter for steadfast growth and expansion. Risk Management According to Laird and McCutcheon (2002), risk management is the integrated loom to the management of the constant reduction of risks to environment assets, production and people in the industrial setting. Chandler (2003)

Paris Peace Conference 1919 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Paris Peace Conference 1919 - Term Paper Example The mission to restore peace was proclaimed by President Wilson. All the documents present the authors’ quest for peace. This is portrayed with carefully chosen words that are used and the effect that these words have on the delegates that attended the conference. The Paris Peace Conference recorded an attendance of 27 countries with high-ranking representatives and aids who devised a Peace Treaty. The central power leaders who attended the conference included Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, George Clemenceau of France, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States. During the Peace Conference, two themes were highly critical. The first theme was that each victorious ally from Europe had betrayed the diplomacy of the then president Wilson. Therefore, in so doing, they had deprived the post war international order of its moral justification1. The second theme was the Carthaginian settlement in which all the winning nations had virtually dismantled the country of Germany of all its economic and military power. Therefore, the main theme was that of restoring peace to the war torn nations while the secondary themes were of diplomacy and the Carthaginian settlement. These three themes each stand for itself and the three cannot be united as one theme. Key points of the speeches by the presidents of the four nations are evident. The then President of the United States, President Wilson, promised Poland free and secure access to the Baltic Sea. Wilson balanced antithetical considerations with his self-determination and patience2. France attended the conference with the aim of acquiring backup and security from the Germans. Therefore, the only way of achieving their goal was to ensure the Americans and the British take over. However, this was only possible if the two countries could give Germany such a punch that Germany could never rise again3. The Peace Conference Treaty which was

Outline & Evaluate the Functionalist Approach to Crime & Deviance Essay Example for Free

Outline Evaluate the Functionalist Approach to Crime Deviance Essay This question includes assessment of your understanding of the connections between crime and deviance and sociological theory. Functionalist explanations of deviance begin with society as a whole looking for the origins of deviance in the nature of society, not the biological or psychological make up of an individual. Functionalists favour quantative methods to look at society, using statistics to see society as a whole, rather than looking at the individuals effect on society. The majority of Functionalists ideas on crime derive from the work of Durkheim. Durkheim believes that crime in inevitable because not every member of society shares the same values and norms; every society has crime, particularly the most advanced industrial societies. Crime is seen as not only inevitable, but functional to society because it allows for change, which is vital for society to function. Durkheim argues that crime brings society together, as in the case of the Soham murders. From this point of view it can be questioned what the function of punishment is, Durkheim believes punishment is a form of social control and act as a signal to people. A.K Cohen developed Durkheims ideas further, providing further possible functions of deviance. Firstly deviance can act as a safety valve providing an expression of discontent. Cohen uses the example of prostitution, he believes this protects the institution of the family and provides a release from the stress of family life without undermining family stability because the relationship between prostitute and client has no emotional attachments. In other words it is fine for a man to use a prostitute, but not to have an affair because that would jeopardise the family! Cohen believes that deviance acts as a warning device too indicate that an aspect of society is malfunctioning, thus drawing attention to it and allowing the problem to be resolved. An example of this is the Los Angeles riots that drew attention to the mistreatment of blacks, likewise the Steven Lawrence case. Durkheim and Cohens work is important because it moved ideas away from biological and psychological explanations for deviance, rather seeing it being society itself creating crime. However, other sociologists believe the functions are too narrow and class differences are not examined.

Social Order Essay Example for Free

Social Order Essay Functionalists theory assumes that a certain degree of order and stability is essential for the survival of social systems. Without it, society may be exposed to chaos and disorder. Therefore, social order is essential for society and it refers to shared nor,s and values, which provide the foundation for cooperation, since common values produce goals. Functionalists believe that social order exists in the concept of value consensus to a large extent. Functionalists believe that without collective conscience/shared values and beliefs, achieving social order is impossible and social order is crucial for the well-being of society. They believe that value consensus forms the basic integrating principle in society. And if members of society have shared values they therefore also have similar identities, this helps cooperation and avoids conflict. Talcott Parsons argues that social order is achieved through the existence of a shared value system. According to him, Social order is only possible as long as members of the society agree on these norms and values. This agreement is called value consensus. Parsons argues that socialization helps to ensure that individuals conform to shared values and meet the systems needs. Through the socialization process individuals internalize the systems norms and values so that society becomes part of their personality structure. Different agencies of socialization such as family, school. etc On the other hand, The Marxists see the functionalists view of consensus as pure fiction. According to them, what actually happens is that the rich force the rest of the population to compliance and conformity. According to them there are scarce resources such as prestige, power and wealth, and the demands for these things exceed the supply. Those who get in control of these resources now use it for their interest at the expense of others. In conclusion, the functionalists theory sees social order as being maintained by value consensus. According to them, the society is organized, well integrated and stable through value consensus. While the Marxists see this view of consensus as pure fiction and say that social order is maintained by force.

The Impact of Hauora on a Maori Client

The Impact of Hauora on a Maori Client Analyse what effect each one of the following would have on the hauora of a Maori client. 1).Shame Shame is a feeling of guilty or embarrassed by any individual. In healthcare facilities if clients feel shame or embarrassment it will be hard for a Caregiver to provide proper treatment or care for the client. If client feels shame or embarrassed, it will create a significant barrier between a client and care providers and if this happens, care givers won't be able to figure out what a client is thinking or what problem he/she is having. For example; if a client is having some disease or problem which he/she is feeling ashamed of telling to a caregiver than it will affect his holistic well being because care providers won't be able to collect proper data and as a result the right and proper care will not be given to a client. So as a care provider we should encourage client to be open and share his thoughts and feeling. 2).Self Abasement A client who feels self abasement will start to feel that is he is not good enough compared to others and it can lead them to depression and they will withdrawal from social relationship. It will affect the entire Whanau mentally. This person will neglect communication and isolate him from everyone. Therefore the client will not look after himself by not taking medicines or he/she may start eating unhealthy food. 3).Withdrawal A person who withdraw themselves from social relationship mostly go into depression and isolate them from Whanau (family) or friends. If this happens, the care providers in healthcare facilities will not be able to provide right care for a client so social support is very important in this case. For example family should be support the client as well as caregiver to implement the proper treatment by gathering right data from the client. 4).Feeling Misunderstood Some clients may feel they are misunderstood and as a result they feel ashamed or embarrassed. They even sometimes withdraw themselves from others feeling that they are not good enough. As a result it will affect their health because they will hide their feeling and thoughts. So as a caregiver we should always respect other's culture and dignity. For example every healthcare facilities should have a Maori support worker to communicate with Maori client to gather more information and to protect their dignity. 1.2 From the following five(5) situation of whakama, select any four (4)and analyse the impact of each one within a hauora context. 1).One to one consultation with a health worker Some clients feel uncomfortable with one to one consultation with health worker. For some cases health worker need to ask personal and intimate questions to client to get accurate information about the client. A client may feel ashamed or embarrassed to answer personal question which can affect the health of a patient. In this case health worker will not get accurate data from the client to plan good care. For example, sometimes female client feel uncomfortable by the health worker when they are doing physical examination by touching. So health worker should first introduce themselves, ask permission before touching a client with Whanau and a client itself. 2).Group consultation with a health worker As some clients may be not comfortable with one to one consultation there are few clients who may feel uncomfortable with group consultation with health worker. Client may feel ashamed or embarrassed or may be depressed to enclose their personal information to people there are not very well aware of. For example, client feel embarrassed to share their health condition in front of family members because family members are not very supportive. So again health worker will not be able to find out enough information to plan proper health care for the client. to overcome this situation health worker should first ensure that is it fine with the client for group consultation. 3).One to one consultation with a health worker of a different gender Gender has a substantial impact on outcome as well as process level in health care. Most of the clients feel shy/embarrassed to share their personal information or diseases they may have with opposite gender.Some client and health worker naturally shy and fell uncomfortable when asking or answering questions with opposite gender. When a male health worker is doing a physical examination to a female client both parties may feel uncomfortable. It is important for health organization to train primary health worker how to break down barriers between themselves and client in gender differences to generate proper care for a client. 4).Group consultation with a health worker of a different gender During group consultation with a health worker of a different gender can be more embarrassment for a client. Client normally feel shy or feel uncomfortable to give information in a group consultation. Client may feel awkward or ashamed to enclose their personal information in a group or in front of family or friends. So again health worker will find it difficult to gather information regarding to health issues they have and it can create difficulties for health worker to give accurate care. 1.3 Identify and analyse two (2) adverse socia-cultural and two (2) socia-economic factors which could cause whakama and affect hauora outcomes for Maori. Adverse socia-cultural factor one For Maori health wellbeing there are four walls of strong house. First one is te taha wairua (spiritual wellbeing), second,te taha hinengaro (mental wellbeing),third, te taha tinana (physical wellbeing), and fourth, te taha whanau (family wellbeing). However some MÄ ori client may find difficulties to express their traditional values or spiritual aspect with people who are unware of their culture. Therefore, they may felt embarrassed to share their thoughts and feeling in front of them. Clients fear that may be misunderstood by others.A Maori client is considered unwell if any of these four foundations are weak. For Maori to be healthy all these foundations should be strong. Adverse socia-cultural factor two Maori so many traditional and spiritual values and food is one of them. Food plays major role in maori socia-cultural activities and it's not only determines physical health but also emotional, psychological and spiritual wellness. Clients who are at health care facilities may feel depressed, or might withdraw themselves because Maori clients believe that their traditional food is total wellness and happiness. As a result client may stop eating food in facilities which can affect their health. health workers should encourage family members and friends to bring traditional foods once a week to make them happy. Adverse socia-economic factor one Education is one of the socia-economic factor that can affect hauora outcomes for Maori client. Clients who does not receive proper education may feel inferior. They may also feel shy/embarrassed to share their feelings, and thought with people fearing been misunderstood. In this situation a client may mentally and emotionally disturbed which will directly affect the health. health workers should encourage clients to share their thoughts and feelings and also family members can support them to decrease the percentage of whakama. Adverse socia-economic factor two Not every client have a same economic status, some are rich and some are poor. Clients who have lower economic status always feel down to themselves and feel depressed to share their thoughts and feeling with health worker, fearing the expenses of the treatment. They may feel embarrassed of their current economic status which will be very hard for health workers to find out what medical problems they facing. Task 2 Determine the implications of identified impacts of whakama on hauora outcomes. 2.1 a). Identify three (3) negative hauora implications of whakama and how they impact on hauora outcomes. b). Identify three (3) positive hauora implications of whakama, and how they impact on hauora outcomes. Negative outcome one (Feeling of inferiority/ lack of education) Many clients who are in health care facilities are not educated or didn't receive proper education. This can lead to whakama for example, they feel depressed or withdraw themselves from others. Emotionally they feel that they are different from others and avoid expressing their thoughts and feeling with caregivers. Negative outcome two (Feeling embarrassment while practicing cultural rituals) Maori clients are very much attached with their traditional and cultural value. So client believe that traditional practice are good for wellbeing and to make them happy. But they feel embarrassed or shy to practice it the facility because of others judgment. Negative outcome three (Withdrawal) Some clients who are unfamiliar with a facilities environment usually withdraw themselves from others. If this happens than they stop interacting with other's and health workers because they feel unease while they stay there. It can affect their health. Positive outcome one (Include whanau in client care plan) To decrease whakama in client healthcare workers should identify there whakama and include whanau in care plan to support client to feel happy and relaxed. For clients holistic wellbeing family and friend's should support healthcare workers to minimize the whakama of their client. Maori are always very attached to their whanau. Positive outcome two Employee MÄ ori staffs in healthcare facilities. Some Maori clients may not be able to speak proper English which can make them feel depressed so the healthcare facilities should employee MÄ ori staffs who can communicate with the client in their own language to know what are their thoughts and feeling. Positive outcome three Clients at healthcare facilities have difficulties with hearing so caregivers should speak softly and slowly with them so that they can understand you better. Always give information to a client before doing any care so that they will be aware of what you going to do.

THE BIOSPHERE :: essays research papers fc

Biosphere:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The biosphere is part of the earth in which life exists. It is 20 kilometers thick from the bottom of the ocean to the lower atmosphere. It consists of three layers: the lithosphere, which is the land on the surface of the earth; the hydrosphere, which comprises of the water on the earth as well as water vapor in the air; and the atmosphere, which is made up of the air that surrounds the earth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The living organisms in the biosphere interact and affect each other in many ways. This is called a biotic community. There are non-living elements that have an effect on living organisms, these are considered abiotic factors. Some examples of abiotic factors are air, temperature, water, soil, light, and minerals. In a biosphere, organisms live in special groupings -- for instance - a population consists of all individuals of a type living in a general area. An community is a population located in a certain area living among different species. An ecosystem is a larger mass of a population, a community, and abiotic factors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ecosystems can be aquatic or terrestrial. The earth's aquatic ecosystem makes up about 75% of the earth's surface. This aquatic environment is divided into marine and freshwater environments. The earth's earthly ecosystem is mainly made up of forests and deserts, which make up for 25% of the earth's surface. The role or function of an organism in a community is that organism's function. An organism's role is an area picked by that organism based on physical factors such as temperature, light, oxygen and carbon dioxide content and biological factors such as food, competition for resources and predators. This niche provides the organism a place to live in. A habitat remains consistent with an organism's niche as well as provides the organism with a place to reproduce. In this case, organisms may have the same habitat, but different niches.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are three types of relationships involving the interactions between organisms. They are mutualism* (mutually beneficial association between different kinds of organisms), commensalisms* (a relation between two kinds of organisms in which one obtains food or other benefits from the other without damaging or benefiting it), and parasitism* (an intimate association between organisms of tow of more kind; especially: one of which a parasite obtains from a host which it usually injures.)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1.) Mutualism is a relationship where both organisms benefit from their interaction with each other.

Virginia: State and National Science Standards :: Essays Papers

Virginia: State and National Science Standards Across the field of education, standards have become both a guideline for teacher lesson plans and a measuring device for students’ achievement. In recent years several subject-based standards have been put in place by national organizations of scientists, mathematicians, and other professionals. Simultaneously, states have been developing their own set of standards, many of which may or may not correspond with offerings such as the National Science Education Standards (NSES). One example we will focus on in this paper is the State of Virginia’s Standards of Learning (SOLs). As a result, the VA SOLs received a rather poor grade on a national scale, measured by the Thomas B. Ford Foundation in March 1998. Much of the criticism lies in the VA SOLs’ lack of broad ideas and theoretical structure. Educators across the state have differing opinions concerning the VA Science Standards. Many educators have expressed disagreement over the value and the implementation of the SOLs. With regard to the VA Science SOLs, one elementary school teacher stated, "I don’t find the science SOLs controversial at all. I really enjoy teaching science and can find many ways to include the SOLs in all my academic areas." Not all teachers feel so positively about the standards. A Northern Virginia elementary principal expressed this viewpoint when he said, "Your feeling about the science SOLs will depend on your philosophical point of view about a fact vs. experiential science curriculum†¦Teachers who like open-ended, experiential-thinking based curriculum will not like them [VA SOLs], teachers who like sequential, fact-rich curriculum will." One criticism of the VA SOLs points towards its lack of exploratory learning due to its fact-based nature. Many believe that the extensive content needed to be covered handicaps teachers in such a way that they are unable to teach anything else but the SOLs and therefore can not delve deeply into any one area of study. On the contrary, VA SOLs can be a valuable resource for lesson plans. Since all teachers on a certain grade level must hold their students responsible for the same information, they can easily share lessons and materials. This lends itself to collaborative teaching. The NSES also have both positive and negative aspects. The National Science Education Standards appeal to those who appreciate an inquiry-based, constructivist approach. As stated in Catherine Kelly’s article, Reaching to the Standards (2000), "The Standards [NSES] have also encouraged constructivism and rallied support for a developmental curriculum in which students are more process oriented than product oriented.

Sons And Lovers Eaxamine The R Essay -- essays research papers

Sons and Lovers: Examine the Relationships Paul has with the Women in his Life. Paul Morel is the main character in DH Lawrence's novel 'Sons and Lovers'. The story charts his early life from when his parents married and the subsequent birth of four children, through childhood and early adulthood to the death of his mother. During this time three women have a major impact on his life, his mother, Miriam and Clara. Each has the most influence at different times in his life and can be attributed to his childhood, being a young man and early adulthood respectively; but each woman's influence carries on to shape Paul into the man he becomes. From the very beginning there is a connection between Paul and his mother in that he looks like her with his dark hair and blue eyes. As a child 'he seemed old for his years', grave and serious like Mrs Morel. He is a quiet boy but spirited much like his mother and this increases with age as his other's influence becomes more apparent. 'When she fretted he understood, and could have no peace. His soul seemed always attentive to her' is the way their attachment is described; their bond is very strong and very deep. As Paul grew older she never suffered alone for her husband's faults and what she lacked in life because 'her children suffered with her'. 'It hurt the boy keenly, this feeling about her, that she had never had her life's fulfilment' so much so that it became his 'childish aim' to provide it. When he began to work 'it was almost as if it were her own life'. 'Paul almost hated his mother' for this suffering when his father did not come home from work. He felt she should not waste herself on a man like his father when she could rely on her son. This stems from the jealousy Paul feels of his father because of his place in the household, in his mother's affections and efforts, all of which he disregards. Paul never had a strong constitution as he was subject to bouts of bronchitis. Described as 'delicate', this accounted for his mother's 'difference in feeling for him' compared with her other children. She treated him more tenderly and felt he was of a better mettle than her other children but physically weaker so 'she always felt a mixture of anguish in her love for him'. Further to this Paul could never go home 'empty to his mother' not even when collecting blackberries and because he never did so she did not expe... ...her. Sunday comes between his visits and it goes slowly, hour after laborious hour. He is physically enamoured of her, for example 'her ear, half hidden among her blonde hair, was near to him. The temptation to kiss it was almost too great.' This leads to the fact that for Paul sex is the culmination of intimacy, but as for Miriam, it is not with Clara either. This proves Paul's relationship with Clara is purely physical, as shown by the descriptions of her such as 'He could see her figure inside the dress, as if that were wrapped closely round her.' In all the relationships are very different between Clara and Miriam but if you added the aspects of them together they create something of the relationship Paul had with his mother but in a more sexual context. In all of them Paul is content, yet discontent, happy yet sad, calm but angry - he is a mass of contradictions and seems to realise this at the end of the book when he not only symbolically walks away from the mistakes and people of the past but his past self also. It is obvious his mother had a great effect on Paul not only in his actions but in the development of his personality and will probably continue to after her death.

A Comparison of the American and the Japanese Health Care Systems

Both the United States and Japan are part of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, an organization composed of industrialized countries) and as such both countries are under the pressure to live up to a certain median when it comes to the quality of health care. Apart from the median created by OECD countries, the US and Japan are also equally pressured by such organizations as the World Health Organization (WHO) that sets up checklists for good health care systems. In a report last 2000 on the health care systems of 191 countries, WHO set some goals for a health care system.These goals are the following: good health, responsiveness, and fairness in financing (WHO in Bureau of Labor Education of the University of Maine 2001, 1). By â€Å"good health† WHO refers to the good health status of the entire population although out the human being’s life cycle. â€Å"Responsiveness,† on the other hand, refers to â€Å"the extent to which careg ivers are responsive to the client/patient expectations with regard to non-health areas such as being treated with dignity and respect† (Bureau of Labor and Education o the University of Maine 2001, 6).Fairness in financing generally refers to the progressiveness of the health care system wherein those who have less are also to spend less on medical care. These goals shall be utilized to evaluate and compare the Japanese and the American health care systems. But before an effective evaluation and comparison could be done, it will be important to individually describe the health care systems of these two countries. As such, this paper shall consist o the following parts: a description of the American health care system; a description of the Japanese health care system; an evaluation and the comparison of the two health care systems.The American Health Care System A. The Framework of the American Health Care System The American Health Care System could best be illustrated using figure 1. In figure 1, it could be noted that there are two insurance systems in America, public and private. Public insurance system refers to Medicare, Medicaid, the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (S-CHIP), and the Veteran’s Administration (VA). Private insurance system, on the other hand, refers to either employer-sponsored insurance or private non-group insurance. We shall discuss each of these types.Medicare is a federal program that insures seniors aged 65 and above as well as some disabled individuals (Chua 2006, 2). This is a single-payer, government-administered program that covers hospital services, physician services, as well as prescription drug services (Chua 2006, 2). Medicare is financed three ways: federal income taxes, payroll tax (paid both by employers and employees), and individual enrollee premiums (Chua 2006, 2). There are individual enrollee premiums because even if Medicare provides the above-mentioned services, there are still import ant services that are not covered without the premium coverage.These premium services include nursing facilities; preventive care coverage; and coverage for dental, hearing, or vision care. This means that the elderly who are covered by Medicare would many times still need to avail of premium services and as such, they contribute a total of 22% of their income for the cost of health care (Chua 2006, 2). Medicaid is a state-administered health insurance program that provides coverage to low income citizens and disabled; specifically, this insurance â€Å"covers very poor pregnant women, children, disabled, and parents† (Chua 2006, 2).As for its administration, Medicaid is paid for by the state and the federal government. At the very least, the federal government pays $1 for every dollar that the state pays for (Chua 2006, 2). Unlike Medicare, Medicaid offers a more comprehensive health benefits. S-CHIP is like Medicaid as regards administration but it is specifically for child ren whose parents do not qualify for Medicaid due to their income but still do not make enough money to provide insurance for their children. VA is a state-sponsored health insurance service for the veterans of the military.This insurance provides comprehensive health benefits that make the veteran spend almost nothing for health care. Employer-sponsored insurance refers to private health insurance services the premium of which are largely paid for by employers. Under this system are the many organizations that offer health maintenance (HMOs). This is where corporations like Aetna and Kaiser Permanente fall. The coverage offered as well as the degree of co-sharing by the different HMOs differ also (Chua 2006, 3).Private non-group health insurance is the sort of insurance availed by those who are self-employed and those that could not avail of employer-sponsored insurance. This sort of insurance allows the insurance company to impose rules regarding pre-existing conditions. Usually, pre-existing conditions are not covered by the insurance. This sort of insurance is fully administered by the HMOs and the benefits vary widely as well. B. Characteristics and Problems of the American Health Care System The American Health Care System is mostly a combination and interaction of public and private entities.This is most exemplified by the two general types of health insurance services: the public and the private. This fact could be demonstrated by a 2003 statistics on Health Insurance Coverage of the nonelderly (in Chua 2006, 1). This statistics shows that 62% of nonelderly Americans receive private employer-sponsored insurance, while 5% purchase their insurance in the market (Chua 2006, 1). 18% of these nonelderly individuals are in public insurance like Medicaid or Medicare, while the remaining 15% are uninsured (Chua 2006, 1).Elderly Americans aged 65 years and above are mostly insured through Medicaid (Chua 2006, 1). Or, better yet, we might as well look at statist ics from the Centers of Medicare and Medicaid represented as a pie graph in figure 2(American Hospital Association 2005, 6). In the 2003 statistics on the â€Å"Distribution of US Health Care Expenditures by Payer Source,† of the total $1. 7 trillion expenditures on health care, more than half are paid for by private entities. The lion’s share goes to private insurance. In this statistics, 35.8% are paid for by private insurance (American Hospital Association 2005, 6). Consumer’s out-of-pocket spending on health care account for 13. 7% of the 2003 health care expenditure, while other private expenditure account for 4. 8% of the expenditure. Medicare, a government health insurance system, pays for 17% of health care expenses, while Medicaid, another government health insurance system, shoulders 16% of the expenditure. The remaining 12. 7% of expenditure is paid for by other government systems like the S-CHIP and VA (Centers American Hospital Association 2005, 6; Chua 2006, 2).As such, we could see that the American Health Care System’s expenditure is more than 50% private. In spite of the big percentage in the budget that the federal government allots to health care, probably the biggest budget allotment in the OECD countries, a big percentage of health expenditures is handled by private entities. It is worth mentioning that America is spending on the average 15% of its GDP on health care when the average on OECD countries is only 8. 6% (Chua 2006, 5).This also means that America has the highest per capita spending on health care compared to other OECD Countries. It was documented that almost 10 years ago, the US was already the biggest per capita spender among its OECD colleagues. It spent $4,178 per capita while Switzerland, then second to the US on per capita spending, spent only $2794 per capita on health care. In spite of the big role of private entities and the high percentage in budget that health care system has, a big percen tage of non-elderly adults are uninsured (15% are uninsured as we saw above).This means that millions of adults in the working age have to spend their own money for health services. This also means that probably America is the only developed country that does not provide health services to all its citizens (Bureau of Labor Education in the University of Maine 2001, 3). Another problem is the fact that the United States has a high infant mortality rate compared to the other OECD counties. In fact, the United States ranked 26th in infant mortality rate among the industrialized countries (Bureau of Labor Education in the University of Maine 2001, 5).Neither did America rank well in disability-adjusted life expectancy ranking 24th among OECD countries (Bureau of Labor Education in the University of Maine 2001, 5). This means that a number of Americans expect to live parts of their lives in disability which probably is a consequence of not having access to health care (as a big percentag e of nonelderly are uninsured). Aside from these problems, American health care is also characterized by a deficit in resources as most emergency departments in hospitals report of being â€Å"at† or â€Å"over† capacity (American Hospital Association 2005, 25).In figure 3, we could see a bar graph showing how some hospitals (especially teaching hospitals) could be at 43% beyond capacity. Such a lack could be accounted for largely by the lack of critical care beds, and not necessarily by overcrowding, in these emergency departments (American Hospital Association 2005, 27). This would mean that a number of hospitals, both in their emergency departments and intensive care units, would need to spend time on diversion (American Hospital Association 2005, 26). These are all ironical problems in a country that is supposed to be most advanced in economy and technology.The Japanese Health Care System A. The Framework of the Japanese Health Care System The Japanese Health Care System, in contrast to the American system, offers coverage for all the citizens. This system offers services that are fairly comprehensive. Currently, the Japanese Health Care System provides â€Å"a basic package of benefits (including medical consultation, drugs, and other materials; medical treatment, surgery, and other services; home care treatment and nursing; and hospitalization and nursing at medical institutions) and they may offer additional benefits (e.g. , funeral benefits, maternity allowances) under the collective scheme† (Ward and Piccolo 2004). This system is best illustrated by figure 4. Health services are paid for in four ways: health insurance contributions, by patient co-payments, by taxes, and by out-of-pocket payments (Jeong and Hurst 2001, 10). Health services are given by providers which could be categorized according to the following: hospitals, doctors’ clinics, health centers, and pharmacies. Most hospitals are categorized as general hospita ls which mean that beds are allocated for long term care.These hospitals are closed to doctors who have clinics, these clinics being capable of minimum bed capacity of 12 (Jeong and Hurst 2001, 11) and may have the latest medical devices needed for diagnosis. Pharmacies may have their own doctors who may dispense their own prognoses and prescriptions. Nursing services are also considered as health providers. The insurance services, though provided by more or less 5,000 HMOs, are largely non-autonomous non-governmental bodies (Jeong and Hurst 2001, 13). These HMOs are basically in charge of operating the compulsory national health insurance system (Jeong and Hurst 2001, 13).These HMOs experience control by the national and local governments. In fact, even doctors’ fees as well as other health services fees are standardized. The Japanese Health Care System may be categorized into two big divisions: the Social Insurance System (SIS) and the National Health Insurance (NHI) (Ward and Piccolo 2004). People are assigned to a health insurance such that those who are working in a company or office are assigned in the SIS, while everyone else who cannot be classified as working in a company or office (including self-employed professionals) should fall under the NHI (Ward and Piccolo 2004).63% of the population is insured under the SIS. Under the SIS, employers pay 50 to 80% of the premium while employees, depending on their income, pay around 8. 5% of their income for health insurance premium. In this system, the insured and their dependents pay 20-30% of in-patient and out-patient costs, at the same time act as co-payers in prescription drugs (Ward and Piccolo 2004). The NIH system, on the other hand, covers the remaining 37% of the population. Premiums paid by the insured depend on incomes and assets. The insured as well as their dependents are required to be co-payers of 30% of the cost.In spite of the requirement for co-payment, Japan offers a co-payment cap: â€Å"The cap is at ? 63,600 (US$600) per month, with the average monthly disposable income being ? 561,000 (US$5,300)† (Ward and Piccolo 2004). In addition, those who are elderly may benefit from long-term insurance which covers 90% of long-term maintenance costs. B. Problems with the Japanese Health Care System The Japanese Health Care System boasts of having state-of-the-art equipment accessible to its citizens. In fact, Japan has the highest CT and MRI scanners per capita among all countries.Japan also has low infant mortality rate in spite of lower GDP spending (7. 6%) for health care, well within the OECD median (Ward and Piccolo 2004). Japan is also able to provide co-payment cap though like the United States, Japan’s health system is also highly paid for by private entities: â€Å"Japan spent ? 29. 8 trillion (US$280 billion) on healthcare, of which 53% was covered by insurance, 32. 3% by the government, and 14. 8% by patients' co-payments† (Ward and Pi ccolo 2004). Nevertheless, the Japanese Health Care System has its own share of problems.For one, unlike in most Western countries, specialization does not matter as much as in America. What matters is where a doctor is affiliated, thus making the distinction between a general practitioner and a specialist blurred. This makes having a â€Å"family doctor† difficult to have and standardization difficult to come by (Jeong and Hurst 2001, 13). Also, Japan has 2 to 3 times longer hospitalization time compared to other countries which means that Japan would need more beds to accommodate patients (National Coalition on Health Care, 3).Probably the biggest problem that the system is facing is the increasing number of elderly population which would obviously strain (National Coalition on Health Care, 3). There is also the problem of weak preventive care as well as low public awareness on â€Å"taboo† illnesses such as HIV and AIDS (Ward and Piccolo 2004). Comparison Between th e Two Health Care Systems In the introduction, we spoke of the WHO requirement for good health, responsiveness, and fairness in financing. Let us evaluate the two systems based on these WHO goals.The American system, aside from the problems posed above, obviously lacks in its ability to provide â€Å"good health† for the entire population. For one, the American health care system does not cover the entire American population. There is just no mandate for such. The Japanese system is obviously different. Japan has a national mandate for universal coverage. This means that the Japanese system is made in such a way that all Japanese would have to fall into one of the two insurance systems.The fact that all Japanese are insured at the same time Japanese spending on health care against GNP is well within the OECD median is something that Americans would have to learn from. The very concept of a co-payment cap is a very good thing that makes health care more responsive to the call for â€Å"good health for the entire population. † As regards responsiveness, the fact that millions of Americans are uninsured automatically makes them not capable of even evaluating client/patient relations for issues such as dignity, respect, etcetera.Nevertheless, the Japanese system also has room for improvement as the existence of â€Å"taboo† sicknesses would obviously compromise the treatment of patients with dignity and respect. Lastly, as regards the requirement for fairness in financing, the Japanese system is way better than the American system. To a certain extent, the American system would make it difficult for certain parts of the population to be insured as they are not too poor to qualify for Medicaid but they are also not employed nor financially endowed enough to pay for private insurance. This is totally not a problem in the Japanese system.

Language Acquisition

voice communication is a domineering set of finite arbitrary symbols that ar applyd to convey data from a advertded player to a receiver. It is the close to revolutionizing foundation gentles had ever made. It made converse commit lesser errors, and be more accurate in sending discipline to a particular receiver.It is too adept of the ecumenic and most dynamic creations of creation. all(prenominal) gentleman in every floriculture, enclose or past, owns a particular lyric poem that is unique compargond to opposite speech communications or yet to the same talking to at a contrastive time.People energize always been adequate to distri scarcee by performer of speech, gestures, signs and other diametric arbitrary symbols. This process is called communication wherein singles and groups atomic depend 18 adequate to(p) to express what they think and she-bop hold by dint of polar addresss.On contrary, it has been tell that actors line weed only be any spoken or written, and is the primary source of communication. It whitethorn be transmitted through bring outing based on conditi oned associations between lyric and things. Through it, raft argon non only able to sh atomic number 18 information only excessively, they argon adequate to sh ar their cultures since language reflects culture too.The structure of language involves phonology, morphology, grammar and syntax. Phonology, considers the sound baffling in language. It is the range of possible sounds that a certain language utilizes. These sounds do not name meaning on themselves as units. Morphology on the other hand, deals with the combine of sounds to which they form pregnant words, phrases or directences. These be the most basic units of language that deem meanings. Grammar is the rule in which sounds and words be to be put. Grammatical rules include down verb agreement and the like. And last, syntax is the rule that governs how words should be arrange d so that the information would be symbolized more accurately (Kotak, 2004).There are cardinal aspects of communication. First is the qualification to take what others are guessing to go on and twinkling, is the ability to herald to others in a such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) a way that they brook be understood (Hurlock, 1982).Communication requires two processes, encoding and decoding. encode is when a source puts information into symbols, art objective lens decoding is the process wherein the symbolized information is dark back into conceptual information that fanny be understood. There is as well as a concept called miscommunication wherein the information conveyed through a particular language was not decoded aright by the receiver, or that the information was sent to the wrong receiver.Considering infancy or infancy years, it would be difficult for such babies to be understood. And since learning to speak is not an low-cal task for babies, nature provid es other mean of communication until these babies are ready to speak. These other forms of communication are called pre-speech forms (Cos proclaimo, 1976).Pre-speech forms comes in intravenous feeding developmental patterns of learning how to talk crying, utter, gestures and drop of unrestrained expressions. Crying is one of number 1 few ways of an sister usance as a form of communication. though crowings do not always issue forth an accurate interpretation of an sisters cry, his cries are indications that he is trying to communicate.The different cries of a sis may show his hunger or pain. Most babies learn that crying is a way to reward attention before they are threesome months of age. Also, crying is one of the indicators that an baby is learning. When an child cries, he may observe that he purposes attention, and beca expenditure he know that he needfully attention, especially from adults, he would repeat this appearance. And beca function of the reiterate crying, the attention that adults give them becomes a dictatorial reinforcer to his behavior. With this, he learns that he bay window communicate with other mans with the custom of crying.The previous behavior loafer also be seen as a jumping-off point on which infants learn more tortuous forms of language, such as speech. With pre-speech forms such as crying and babbling, he rout out communicate hunger or pain to adults, but when he wants to communicate their want to go out of their crib or to get a particular object they see on a distance, it would require for them to have a more complex promoter for communication.This is evident in an infant from 3-7 months old. The infant still cannot deliver speech, but has already learned that they can communicate through pre-speech forms. When the baby gets hungry, he will cry. When an adult extends both arms to gesture that he would want to carry the infant, the infant would either extend his arms if he wants to be taken or retrac ts if he does not want to be taken. When a baby suddenly cries, an adult will not be readily able to ensure wherefore he is crying, but when an infant already knows how to mouth some intelligible morphemes, the caregiver would be able to tell exactly why the infant was crying.Babbling is another(prenominal)(prenominal) form of how a baby tries to communicate (Hurlock, 1982). It can be seen as a prototype language which infants can routine to communicate. Babbling can also be seen as the epitome of all human languages, beca rehearse it contains the simplest units of language, phonemes and morphemes.Children from different cultures babble before they are able to speak (Lenneberg, 1967). Babbling is genuinely a stage of a boor wherein he or she makes different sounds but are not recognizable as words. Infants produce sounds that can be considered as basic parts of spoken language. It a lot begins on the kids seventh or 10th months of age (Oller, 2000). This babbling stage of a child is a lottimes built by rise ups wherein they recognize the child by smiling or repeat the word to which the childs babble seem to sound like. It is also reinforced when the baby gets what he wants when he does a particular behavior, for example, when he wants one of his parents to come, he can place ma-ma, or da-da.Gesturing, on the other hand, is a substitute that babies use for speech. This is done when children are able to govern a few words and so combining these words with actions to complete their time or to be able to communicate to others. An example of this is a child who would say no and push his plate this heart that he does not like or want the provender. Babies can also use gestures to express emotions more. Babies can show rejoicing by tapping, or show specialty by gently touching an object.These gestures are still evident even when the infant grows up. Most of the gestures that adults still use can also be seen in infants. A person laughing hard may hit objects, like a shelve or his / her leg with an open palm. This behavior can also be seen in infants. The nodding and shaking of the head can also be seen both in adults and babies.And last of the four pre-speech forms is the so-called emotional expressions. This is said to be the most rough-and-ready pre-speech form of communication because of the expressive facial gestures utilize by babies to communicate to others. It is also useful because babies are not capable of controlling emotions so it is easy to break what they feel and babies also find it easier to make what others are trying to tell them through their facial expressions than the words being employ (Hurlock, 1982).Facial expressions are very powerful communicating instruments because of the existence of five global emotions such as anger, fear, sadness, happiness and disgust. All humans from different cultures can understand to each one of these emotions. This may be the reason why infants have been presump tuousness the acquisition to use these emotions and show these through facial expressions.Acquisition is outlined as the phase where an individual learns a new skill (Mazur, 2006). An infant can be said to have acquired a new learning when it starts using the skill to produce a particular effect. It is said that infants who know how to use their crying to get the adults attentions have already acquired the knowledge of communicating.Association is when objects are linked or connected to one another. In this process, the child is shown two objects from which he could identify one with the help of the other. training through association also involves the number of times or the frequency of an object when paired to another. Therefore, the more frequent two objects are paired, an individual would be most likely to associate them (Mazur, 2006).This can be seen when an infant associates hunger with crying, crying with the parents attention, and the attention with food. This way, wheneve r the baby gets hungry, he will cry thinking that food will come next.A child learns language through parents reinforcement of making sounds such as babbling and cooing. This reinforcement is often done through the so-called operant conditioning. Reinforcement is defined as a stimulus that helps strengthen or lessen the behavior of an individual only if it is given after the specific behavior occurs. In this case, the positive reinforcement is most unremarkably used wherein a child receives incentives or rewards if he did desirable things which would tend to be associated in his behaviors. Meanwhile, operant conditioning is a process wherein the subject has his or her behaviors modified through learning from the consequences of their actions.On the other hand, Noam Chomsky (1955) claimed that the human brain has limited set of rules to send language making language have a common basis called universal grammar. Chomsky had hypothesized that language is formed because of environme ntal factors. This means language is shaped by the environment. star example of this is an operation that would move the second word of a sentence to the front, and thereby accounts for the fact that children tend not to try out sequences such as Of furnish water are on the prorogue? when they seek the interrogative counterpart of glass of water are on the table. commonplace grammar is part of the knowledge that resides in the human mind of a person who knows a language. The science of linguistics tries to ascertain what constitutes universal grammar and what beyond universal grammar differentiates languages from one another (Albert, n.d.).When a child grows up, he or she takes note of how he speaks and how he delivers different speeches. The child now learns by mould by imitating the way adults speak and use language. The choice of primary language is also determined by the language used by the parents.The child also becomes certain and conscious of his grammar and syntax as he communicates with others. Grammar and syntax deal with the togetherness, order and disposition of words. The child also learns how to put words into different arrangements so that the child can communicate effectively.The Wernickes area and Brocas area of the brain, both located at the cerebral cortex is important for language comprehension and speech production. If these areas would be damaged, an individual will not be able to understand any spoken language and would lose the ability to speak meaningful sentences (Mazur, 2006).ReferencesAlbert, Michael. (n.d.) Universal Grammar and Linguistics. Retrieved 4 June 2007 from Chomsky, N. (1955). Syntactic Structures. The Hague MoutonCostello, A.J. (1976). Pre-verbal communication. journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and confederate Disciplines, 17, 351-353.Hurlock, E. (1982). Developmental Psychology A Life-Span Approach. Navotas McGraw-Hill Inc. pp. 87-89.Kotak, C. P. (2004). Language and Communication. Anthropology The E xploration of Human Diversity. 10 ed. pp. 391- 414.Lenneberg, E.H. (1967). biologic Foundations of Language. parvenu York WileyMazur, J. E. (2006). Learning and Behavior. New island of Jersey Pearson Prentice Hall.Oller, D.K. (2000). The Emergence of the Speech Capacity. Mahwah, New Jersey Erlbaum.